Vitamin B12 deficiency symptom that shows up in the feet

Vitamin B12 is crucial for the body, with B vitamins vital to support wound healing, among many other things. And many people may not know a tell-tale sign of a deficiency may appear in the feet.

B12 is typically sourced from eggs, beef, chicken, and cheese, absorbed into the body through the digestive system. B vitamins are essential for producing red blood cells that facilitate oxygen transport across the body – a key process for maintaining sharp vision, strong immunity, effective protein uptake, DNA replication, and the creation of red blood cells.

One medical expert has underscored the impact of a lack of vitamin B12 on the body's ability to heal wounds. A significant protein called intrinsic factor (IF), which is produced in the stomach, combines with vitamin B12 to ensure it isn't lost during digestion.

Find out about the symptoms you need to watch out for and get health advice with our free health newsletter from the Mirror

However, if the immune system mistakenly attacks stomach cells, IF production can falter, leading to poor vitamin B12 absorption. The University of Nottingham expert highlighted that "lack of vitamin B can affect wound healing in a number of ways", particularly concerning feet health.

If tingling sensations in the feet occur, it's recommended to see a GP, reports the Liverpool Echo. If you are deficient, your doctor may recommend supplements or even weekly injections to correct the imbalance.

It’s imperative to address any shortfall of vitamin B12, given that neglect could lead to serious neurological issues and blood disorders. Harvard Medical School warns: "Vitamin B12 deficiency can be slow to develop, causing symptoms to appear gradually and intensify over time." They also noted that a lack of vitamin B12 "might also occur following weight-loss surgery too."

Overuse of heartburn medication can lead to reduced stomach acid production, which is crucial for the absorption of vitamin B12, potentially leading to a deficiency. Vitamin B12 supplements are available for purchase online, in pharmacies, or can be prescribed by a doctor.

Men’s brains shrink faster than women’s, new Alzheimer’s research shows

Men’s brains shrink faster than women’s, despite Alzheimer’s disease being diagnosed more frequently in women, new research shows.

More than seven million Americans have Alzheimer’s, and by 2050, that number is expected to increase to nearly 13 million, according to the Alzheimer’s Association. The lifetime risk for Alzheimer’s at age 45 is one in five for women compared to one in 10 for men, the association says.

A study recently published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences set out to determine whether sex differences in healthy brain aging explain why women are more often diagnosed with Alzheimer’s.

Researchers studied more than 12,000 brain MRIs from nearly 5,000 participants aged 17 to 95, and found men’s brains shrank faster across more regions than women's brains. Notably, areas related to memory, emotion and sensory processing were affected, according to the study.

Women’s brains showed slightly more expansion in their ventricles, which are fluid-filled spaces inside the brain, the study found.

"Our findings show that men experience greater structural brain decline across more regions, meaning that normal brain aging doesn’t explain the sex difference in Alzheimer’s rates," the lead author of the study, Anne Ravndal of the University of Oslo in Norway, told Fox News Digital.

Ravndal said the study’s results “instead point toward other possible explanations, such as differences in longevity, diagnostic patterns or biological factors.”

One theory that has been floated about the prevalence of Alzheimer’s in women stems from the facts that aging is the primary risk factor for the disease and women live longer than men.

"It's unclear why this imbalance exists. Longevity has been an explanation, because age is such a strong risk factor for dementia," Paola Gilsanz of the Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research said in a 2020 article from the Alzheimer’s Association.

"But now we see that doesn't explain everything. So we're looking at a variety of factors, including those that are biological and those that are social or cultural."

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Why do we yawn? It’s almost certainly not for the reason you think

All vertebrates yawn, or indulge in a behaviour that’s at least recognisable as yawn-adjacent. Sociable baboons yawn, but so do semi-solitary orangutans. Parakeets, penguins and crocodiles yawn – and so, probably, did the first ever jawed fish. Until relatively recently, the purpose of yawning wasn’t clear, and it’s still contested by researchers and scientists. But this commonality provides a clue to what it’s really all about – and it’s probably not what you’re expecting.

“When I poll audiences and ask: ‘Why do you think we yawn?’, most people suggest that it has to do with breathing or respiration and might somehow increase oxygen in the blood,” says Andrew Gallup, a professor in behavioural biology at Johns Hopkins University. “And that’s intuitive because most yawns do have this clear respiratory component, this deep inhalation of air. However, what most people don’t realise is that that hypothesis has been explicitly tested and shown to be false.”

To test the idea that we yawn to bring in more oxygen or expel excess carbon dioxide, studies published in the 1980s manipulated the levels of both gases in air inhaled by volunteers – and they found that while changes did significantly affect other respiratory processes, they didn’t influence the regularity of yawns. There also doesn’t seem to be any systematically measurable difference in the yawning behaviour of people suffering from illnesses associated with breathing and lung function – which is what you would expect if yawns were respiration-related.

This, more or less, was where Gallup came to the subject. “When I was pursuing my honours thesis, my adviser at the time said, well, why not study yawning, because nobody knows why we do it?” he says. “That was intriguing – we knew it had to serve some underlying physiological function. So I started to examine the motor action pattern it involves – this extended gaping of the jaw that’s accompanied by this deep inhalation of air, followed by a rapid closure of the jaw and a quicker exhalation. And it occurred to me that this likely has important circulatory consequences that are localised to the skull.”

We can think of the gaping of the jaw as a localised stretch, similar to stretching muscles in other areas of the body

This, in fact, seems to be exactly what’s happening: several reviews of the medical literature suggest that yawning increases arterial blood supply to the cranium, and then venous return (the rate at which blood flows back from the head to the heart).

“We can think of the gaping of the jaw as a localised stretch, similar to stretching muscles in other areas of the body,” says Gallup. “In the same way that stretching helps circulation in those extremities, yawns seem to do the same for the skull.”

From here, Gallup and his fellow researchers started to develop the idea that yawning helps regulate heat in and around the skull. Your brain’s temperature is mainly determined by three variables – the rate of arterial blood travelling to the brain, the temperature of that blood, and metabolic heat production that occurs within the brain, based on neuronal activity – and yawning, theoretically, can alter the first two. When you yawn, you take in a deep breath of air that moves across the moist surfaces of your mouth, tongue and nasal passages, a bit like air flowing across a car radiator – carrying heat away through evaporation and convection.

Studies seem to bear this out: ambient temperature has a pretty predictable effect on yawn frequency, which goes up when it’s just slightly too toasty (when it gets really hot, the air temperature is too high for the radiator effect to work, so other cooling mechanisms such as sweating kick in and yawning settles down again) and down when it’s colder.

This also seems to explain why certain medical conditions are associated with excess yawning: either the conditions themselves, or the drugs used to treat them, cause elevated brain or body temperature. The “neuronal activity” explanation is also borne out by animal studies – the mammals and birds with more neurons in their brains yawn for longer durations, irrespective of the size of their actual brains.

This isn’t to say that other hypotheses have been entirely put to rest. The one best supported by the evidence is the “arousal change” theory: basically, that yawning helps the brain transition between states – from sleeping to wakefulness, boredom to alertness, and so on. “One possibility is that yawning helps the brain switch between using its ‘default mode network’ – the regions associated with daydreaming, recalling memories and self-reflection – and the attentional network responsible for preparing the body for action,” says the historian of medicine Dr Olivier Walusinski, who has authored several papers on the subject. “One proposed mechanism for this would be that it helps with the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid that surrounds and cushions your brain and spinal cord.”

It could be the case, in fact, that this function evolved first, with the thermoregulation effect emerging as a useful after-effect: something we’ll have better evidence for as studies are done on a wider array of animals. It could also be that the two explanations are directly related: these state changes probably mean changes in brain activity and temperature, meaning a need for enhanced blood flow and neural cooling. This would explain why you yawn when you’re bored: your brain’s activity level may upshift as it starts to think of ways to move you into a more stimulating situation, and so do its circulatory needs.

Yawning’s probably good for you, and it’s probably helping your brain function better

Wait a minute, though: what about contagious yawning? We’re all aware of the phenomenon of one person in a room – or even on a TV screen – taking a gulp of air, only for everyone else to do the same. Some researchers have suggested that this sort of infectious behaviour brings groups together, perhaps because it’s a hard-to-fake signal of sleepiness, boredom or vigilance – though it’s unlikely to be yawning’s main purpose, as plenty of solitary animals are regular yawners.

“It could be that contagious yawning doesn’t have a function and is just a byproduct of advanced social cognitive mechanisms within highly social species,” says Gallup.

To put that slightly more simply, lots of animals – including humans – have various ways of improving their empathy, including “mirror neurons”, which fire when an individual performs an action and when they see someone else perform a similar action. It might be, then, that seeing someone else yawn simply makes your mirror neurons kick in, prompting you to yawn yourself. But contagious yawning may also play a role in group coordination through mechanisms related to the arousal change theory: helping every animal in the group switch states from relaxed to active.

One 2021 study that tested this effect in lions found that other behaviour can be contagious among yawners, so if one lying lion yawns and then gets up for a walk, other yawners follow.

Contagious yawning may also promote group vigilance: if one baboon in a troop triggers others to yawn, they may all become more alert. This may also work the other way around – helping to downregulate arousal before sleep.

So, in other words: yawning’s probably good for you, and it’s probably helping your brain function better. Oh, and if you’ve been conspicuously yawning to get a five-year-old to go to sleep, don’t stop – there’s a chance it’s really working.

Talking to yourself is healthy (most of the time)

In certain circumstances, being caught talking to yourself is embarrassing. It makes you look like you’ve lost your mind! Generally, it's understood that we speak to communicate, and doing so without it being directed at someone or not being heard by anyone defeats the purpose. However, this isn't true. Speaking serves other functions too.

How many times have we been looking for our keys and have asked ourselves, “where are my keys?” Saying it out loud helps us find them because it reminds us of what we’re looking for, and we don’t lose focus. And that's just one example.

To explore why we speak to ourselves, which is commonly referred to as "self-talk," click through this gallery.

It's a motor command

Speaking out loud to nobody is an extension of our inner dialog. It’s caused by a motor command being triggered automatically.

Explanation?

In the early 20th century, Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed that we speak out loud when we first learn to talk because our speech and thoughts aren’t connected.

Inner thoughts become verbal like sentences

After that, inner speech emerges, and our thoughts become more like verbal sentences.

Thoughts and speech connected

Once we’ve learned to connect our thoughts to our speech, we tend not to do it as much. But in adulthood, we still do it, and there are other reasons for this.

Other reasons for self-talk

There are plenty of reasons why speaking out loud can be helpful for adults. Some reasons for “private speech” are practicing a language, learning, and social skills.

Auditory learners speak to themselves to learn

The people who learn through sound tend to repeat directions back to the person who gave them so they can remember. Likewise, they probably learned how to spell by saying the letters of a word over and over again.

Everyone remembers better by saying something aloud

It helps everyone remember something if they read it aloud instead of reading it in their inside voice.

Self-talk aids concentration

It can help us to concentrate, depending on what we’re saying. For example, researchers have gotten people to utter nonsense out loud while trying to perform unrelated tasks. Since humans aren’t great at multitasking, it typically impedes their performance at the task.

It stops you from being distracted

Conversely, if people use their speech to direct their actions, it improves their performance in carrying out tasks by helping them remember what they’re supposed to be doing.

Self-talk and visualization

There are also implications for speaking out loud and how we visualize things. For example, if someone is looking for a chicken in a ‘Where's Waldo?’-style illustration with a lot going on in the image, and they say the word “chicken,” they will visualize a chicken and can find it faster.

Self-talk and confidence

There are also benefits to talking to yourself outside of cognition and concentration. For example, you might increase your confidence and motivation by speaking to yourself positively.

Sports

There have been numerous studies on the effects of self-talk on tennis players' performance. Generally, individuals are split into two groups and participate in an assessment, training sessions, and a final evaluation.

It improves tennis players' performance

One group is asked to practice positive self-talk. In the final assessment, the group that practices positive self-talk shows less anxiety and more confidence, and their performance improves.

Self-distancing

Speaking to yourself in the third person causes self-distancing, which can reduce anxiety towards an upcoming job interview.

Pep talk in third person

Instead of saying “I can do this,” people who speak to themselves in the third person by saying “you can do this, John,” feel less anxious and nervous about the task than people who speak to themselves in the first person.

Calming down

One study published in Scientific Reports proved that speaking to yourself in the third person is the most effective way of calming yourself down.

Inner dialog

We all have inner dialog. Some people have more than others. This internal dialog can wander. Late at night, we may notice that our inner thoughts wander almost randomly. However, we need to be able to cut through this noise to carry out our days.

Excessive inner dialog

With people who suffer from depression or anxiety, this inner dialog can be harder to cut through. When people’s internal dialog begins to wander too much, they can end up incoherent and nonsensical.

Self-talk helps to deal with difficult emotions

If people are struggling with difficult emotions, it can help to talk through them. Like it can help to speak to a friend or a therapist about issues, it can also help to speak to yourself when nobody is around.

It helps us to understand and accept what we're feeling

Essentially it can help us understand what it is exactly we’re feeling, whether it be grief, guilt, or any other feeling, and help us come to terms with accepting what we’re feeling.

Schizophrenia

The person who speaks to themselves as a result of mental illness is a different story. For example, people who have schizophrenia can hear another entity speaking in their head and sometimes respond to it aloud.

When it becomes an issue

Speaking to yourself becomes a concern when it’s the result of auditory hallucinations, like speaking to another entity in your head that only you can hear and that's separate from your own thoughts.

Negative self-talk

There are other harmful forms of self-talk, too. One example of this is negative self-talk, which generally involves a person discouraging and criticizing themselves out loud.

For the most part, it's normal

The bottom line is that speaking to yourself is entirely normal for the most part and has many functions other than being a symptom of a mental health condition.

It help us function

People do this to process their emotions and thoughts and to better carry out tasks.

When it becomes a problem, seek help

If it is a habit that you can’t stop and want to, if you feel distressed about it, or it's predominantly negative self-talk, it may be a good idea to ask someone for help.

Sources: (Neuroscience Letters) (Nature) (Big Think) (Medical News Today)(Healthline) (Perceptual and Motor Skills)

The five​ simple exercises ​that are crucial in midlife​

I’ve been a personal trainer for more than two decades now, so I know that building up and maintaining strength, rather than succumbing to muscle loss, can be the difference between whether you suffer a bruise or a broken bone if you fall over later in life.

The decision to keep your joints moving now will determine the range of motion you have for decades to come. These two pillars of physical health – strength and mobility – can be built up in the comfort of your own home, all you need to do is invest in some weights. And the earlier you start, the better.

Midlife should be a time when we stop exercising in pursuit of that elusive toned belly and instead focus on priming our body to weather the ageing process. Here’s how to do it.

Strength exercises

From around 30, we typically lose three to 8 per cent of our muscle each decade, which limits our ability to do simple activities, such as walking up the stairs. Strengthening exercises help combat this by building muscle back up.

Using weights also increases our bone mineral density, protecting against osteoporosis – when the bones become brittle, fragile and more likely to break – which is especially prevalent among women due to hormonal changes during the menopause.

Building muscle is also great for our metabolic health, because muscle eats up more calories at rest and during exercise, meaning it can protect against the midlife spread (an expanding waistline). It can also keep blood sugar levels in check.

For beginners, start with lighter weights and repeat each exercise 12 to 15 times, followed by a one to two minute break. Complete three to four sets, two to three times a week. Over time, select heavier weights with the goal of reducing the number of repetitions you can perform to six. Practised weightlifters can jump to heavier weights and perform fewer reps.

Sumo deadlifts engage the posterior chain – the muscles that run along the back of the body. These power basic movements, such as getting up and down, taking the stairs and picking something up from the floor, and are also vital for good posture, preventing lower back pain and maintaining a strong pelvic floor – all things that can deteriorate with age.

• Set-up: Stand with your feet wider than shoulder-width apart and toes pointed slightly outward. Place a kettlebell on the floor between your feet.
• Grip the kettlebell: Bend at the hips and knees to reach down and grasp the kettlebell handle with both hands, keeping your back straight and chest up.
• Brace your core: Engage your core muscles by drawing your navel towards your spine. This helps stabilise your spine and protect your lower back.
• Set your hips: Lower your hips towards the kettlebell, keeping your back flat and chest up. Your torso should be inclined slightly forward.
• Drive through your heels: Push through your heels as you extend your hips and knees, lifting the kettlebell off the ground. Keep the kettlebell close to your body throughout the movement.
• Stand tall: Once you’re fully upright, pause briefly at the top of the movement, squeezing your glutes at the top to fully extend your hips.

Dumbbell split squats strengthen the legs to improve stability and balance – factors that can help with walking up the stairs, getting up from the sofa and reducing the risk of falls. If you gain more stability, the likelihood of a fall is going to be lower.

1. Set-up: Stand with your feet hip-width apart, holding a dumbbell in each hand by your sides.
2. Step back: Take a large step backward with one foot, positioning it so your heel is lifted and your toes are in contact with the ground. Your front foot should be flat on the floor.
3. Stance: Adjust your stance so that your front knee is directly above your ankle and your back knee is lowered towards the ground.
4. Engage your core: Engage your core muscles to maintain balance and stability throughout the movement.
5. Lower down: Lower your body straight down by bending your front knee and lowering your back knee towards the ground. Keep your torso upright and avoid leaning forward excessively.
6. Depth: Lower yourself until your front thigh is parallel to the ground, or as low as is comfortable for you, while maintaining proper form.
7. Drive up: Push through the heel of your front foot to straighten your front leg and return to the starting position. Keep your back leg in a slightly bent position throughout the movement.

This exercise is about upper back strength and helps protect against poor posture and kyphosis – when the top of the back becomes rounded. It also improves grip strength, which is something that can deteriorate with age.

1. Set-up: Hold a dumbbell in one hand with an overhand grip (palm facing your body). Stand with your feet hip-width apart and take a step back with one foot into a lunge position. The front knee should be bent at a 90-degree angle and the back knee should be slightly bent.
2. Stance: Ensure your front foot is firmly planted on the ground, and your back heel is lifted. Keep your torso upright with your chest lifted and shoulders back.
3. Brace your core: Engage your core muscles to stabilise your spine and maintain balance throughout the movement.
4. Rowing motion: Initiate the movement by pulling the dumbbell up towards your pelvis, retracting your shoulder blade as you do so. Keep your elbow close to your body and your wrist straight throughout the movement.
5. Squeeze and pause: At the top of the movement, squeeze your back muscles for a brief pause to maximise muscle engagement.
6. Lower down: Slowly lower the dumbbell back to the starting position, maintaining control throughout the eccentric (lowering) phase of the movement.

Mobility exercises

Mobility exercises are about strengthening joints, which can degenerate as we age and become tight and stiff. By slowly and intentionally moving our joints through their fullest range, you can improve or maintain what’s called our “usable range of motion”.

While performing these exercises, focus on having a slow, controlled pace, paying attention to any areas of tightness and making sure your body is stiff and still to offset any compensations and truly isolate the joint you are working on.

Each movement should be performed five to 10 times on each side, followed by a one-minute break. Complete one to two sets daily or a few times per week.

Having a full range of motion in the shoulder is vital for everyday activities and exercise. Poor mobility in this joint limits what we can do.

1. Set-up: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and create tension throughout your body, bracing all muscles apart from the working arm.
2. Movement: Externally rotate the arm so the palm faces outwards. Start to move the arm into the midline of the body and upwards until your hand is pointing straight up towards the ceiling. At this point it should feel like it reaches its end range or sticking point: this is where you internally rotate the shoulder the opposite way and make the biggest circle you can, reaching backwards with the arm. Once your arm reaches your hip, move back the way you came: when you reach the sticking point, you will externally rotate the shoulder and slowly move the arm upwards and back to the starting position ready to repeat again.

Hips are notoriously limited in range due to sitting. This is one of the biggest obstacles for being able to do strengthening exercises, such as squats and deadlifts, and is often the cause of back pain. Hip mobility opens up so many opportunities to move better and improve performance.

1. Set-up: Start on your hands and knees in a quadruped position, with your wrists stacked under your shoulders and your knees under your hips. Maintain a neutral spine with your core engaged throughout the movement. Begin by engaging your core muscles to stabilise your spine and pelvis.
2. Movement: Lift one knee off the ground, keeping it bent at a 90-degree angle, and begin to rotate your hip outward, opening your knee toward the side. Move your knee outward as far as you comfortably can while maintaining control and stability in your core and pelvis. Avoid arching your lower back excessively or letting your pelvis tilt to one side. Once you’ve reached the end of your range of motion in the outward rotation, rotate your leg and bring the knee towards the back midline of the body and lower the knee down to the floor. Reverse the movement by kicking the foot upwards: once it reaches its end range, without arching your lower spine, externally rotate the hip and bring the leg back through the same pathway to return to start position.

Dogs could cut risk of childhood asthma by half

Growing up with dogs could cut the risk of childhood asthma by half, research has found.

Researchers measured levels of allergens found in dust in the family homes of more than 1,000 babies. They then tracked the children to see whether or not they developed asthma by the time they were five years old.

Researchers from the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Canada, analysed dust samples for different allergens including Can f1, a protein shed in dog skin and saliva.

When they were five years old, the children were assessed for asthma by a doctor. Blood samples were also analysed for known genetic risk factors for asthma and allergies.

Overall, almost seven per cent of children involved in the study had developed asthma by the age of five, according to the study, which was presented at the European Respiratory Society (ERS) Congress in Amsterdam.

Risk of developing condition is halved

The research found that babies exposed to higher levels of the dog allergen Can f1 had around a 48 per cent lower risk of developing asthma by the age of five, compared with other babies.

Children who were exposed to this dog allergen from a young age also appeared to have better lung function, as measured by a test to see how much air they could blow out in one second after a deep breath in, also known as forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1).

Dr Jacob McCoy, the study’s author, said: “Asthma is a very common chronic respiratory illness in children, with the highest rates in the first four years of life. It is caused by complex interactions between genetic factors and the environment, including infections, allergies and air pollution.

“Children spend most of their time indoors, so in this research we wanted to study allergens in the home. These are an important risk factor that we could potentially alter to reduce asthma.”

Researchers said that this protective effect was even stronger among children who were at higher genetic risk of worse lung function.

Early exposure to dogs key

No protective effect was found among children exposed to cat allergens or bacterial endotoxin.

Dr McCoy added: “In this study, we examined pet allergens from dogs and cats. We found that, while cat allergens showed no association, exposure to dog allergens was linked to improved lung function and a reduced risk of asthma.

We don’t know why this happens; however, we do know that once a person becomes sensitive to dog allergens, they can make asthma symptoms worse.

“This suggests that early exposure to dog allergens could prevent sensitisation, perhaps by altering the nasal microbiome – the mixture of microbes living inside the nose – or by some effect on the immune system.

“Our findings highlight the potential protective role of dog allergens, but we need to do more research to understand the link between early-life exposure to dog allergens, lung function and asthma during early childhood.”

Dr Erol Gaillard, the chairman of the ERS’s expert group on paediatric asthma and allergy, and associate professor at the University of Leicester, said: “Asthma is the most common long-term condition among children and young people and is also one of the main reasons for children being admitted to hospital for emergency treatment.

“Although there are good treatments that can reduce or stop asthma symptoms, we also want to reduce risk factors to try to prevent asthma.

Study highlights need for more research

“This study suggests that babies who grow up around dogs may have a lower risk of developing asthma. This is potentially good news for families with pet dogs; however, we need to know more about this link and how living with pets affects children’s developing lungs in the longer term.”

Sarah Sleet, the chief executive at Asthma and Lung UK, said: “Previously a lot of advice for children who wheeze or are at risk of developing allergic asthma has been to remove pets from the family home.

“So this new research suggesting a dog in the home could actually reduce the risk of developing asthma is fascinating, although we will need more research to understand what it is about dogs that makes the difference.

“What this research highlights, however, is a much wider problem in respiratory research. We just don’t fully understand the causes of asthma, how you can reduce your risk of developing asthma and how it can be treated if you do develop it. Urgent action is needed to increase investment into lung research to give everyone fighting for breath a future.”

Overview of Financial Markets and Their Role in Economy

Financial markets channel capital from savers to productive investments, creating the backbone of modern economies.

These networks facilitate trading of various instruments — from shares of technology companies like Bandwidth stock (BAND) to government bonds and derivatives.

For UK investors, understanding these markets provides crucial context for investment decisions while revealing how capital flows affect economic growth, employment, and living standards.

Financial markets don’t merely reflect economic conditions—they actively shape them through pricing mechanisms, risk distribution, and capital formation.

What Are Financial Markets?

Financial markets are structured platforms where buyers and sellers exchange financial assets according to established rules.

Unlike commodity markets trading physical goods, financial markets deal in instruments representing claims on future cash flows or risk transfer.

They operate through infrastructure including exchanges like the London Stock Exchange, electronic networks, and settlement systems.

Their primary function is directing capital toward productive uses through price signals. When investors bid up promising technology stocks, they allocate more resources to innovation, while declining prices for struggling sectors signal reduced capital allocation to those business models.

Types of Financial Markets

UK investors can access several distinct but interconnected market types:

• Stock Markets operate as both primary markets for new share issuance and secondary markets where existing shares trade. The London Stock Exchange hosts over 2,000 companies worth approximately £3.9 trillion, including the Main Market for established firms and AIM for smaller, growth-oriented businesses.

• Bond Markets enable governments and corporations to borrow by issuing debt securities. The UK gilt market encompasses approximately £2 trillion in outstanding securities, while corporate bonds trade both on exchanges and over-the-counter, directly influencing borrowing costs throughout the economy.

• Money Markets focus on short-term, highly liquid instruments with maturities under one year, including Treasury bills and commercial paper. The Bank of England conducts monetary policy partly through these markets, while corporations use them for cash management.

• Foreign Exchange Markets constitute the largest financial marketplace globally, with London handling approximately 38% of global transactions. These markets directly impact import costs, export competitiveness, and overseas profit repatriation for UK businesses.

• Derivatives Markets trade contracts whose values derive from underlying assets. UK airlines use oil futures to hedge fuel costs, manufacturers employ currency forwards to manage exchange risk, and investors utilize options for portfolio protection.

Key Participants in Financial Markets

Financial markets bring together diverse participants with varying objectives and time horizons:

• Individual Investors comprise approximately 13.5% of UK share ownership, investing directly or through platforms like Hargreaves Lansdown. Their participation has grown significantly, with retail accounts rising 28% since 2020.

• Institutional Investors dominate UK markets, with pension funds, insurers, and asset managers controlling approximately 63% of listed equity value. Entities like Legal & General influence corporate governance through voting rights while moving markets through large-block trading.

• Banks and Broker-Dealers provide market-making services, underwrite securities offerings, and facilitate trading. Firms like Barclays commit capital to maintain orderly markets while specialized brokers serve particular market segments.

• Market Infrastructure Providers include exchanges and clearing houses that maintain systems enabling market function. The London Stock Exchange Group operates trading platforms, provides indices through FTSE Russell, and clearing services via LCH.

• Regulators establish and enforce market conduct rules. The Financial Conduct Authority oversees investor protection and market integrity, while the Bank of England monitors systemic risks to financial stability.

Functions of Financial Markets in the Economy

 Financial markets perform several critical economic functions:

• Capital Formation enables businesses to fund investments by accessing investor capital. When Octopus Energy raised £455 million for renewable infrastructure in 2022, it connected productive projects with investors seeking returns. This process transforms savings into investment, directly contributing to economic growth and productivity.

• Price Discovery occurs as participants incorporate information into security prices through trading. When AstraZeneca announces clinical results, the resulting share price movement reflects the market’s assessment of how this information affects the company’s prospects, directing capital toward promising opportunities.

• Liquidity Provision enables converting assets to cash quickly, reducing the risk premium demanded for capital commitments. The average daily trading volume of £4.9 billion on the London Stock Exchange creates confidence that investments can be liquidated when needed, directly reducing corporate capital costs.

• Risk Transfer allows entities to hedge unwanted risks while others assume these risks for compensation. When British Airways locks in fuel prices or exporters hedge currency exposure, they transfer risks to counterparties better positioned to bear them, enabling businesses to focus on core operations.

• Information Aggregation through prices creates signals guiding economic decision-making. Rising gilt yields signal changing inflation expectations, while the FTSE 250’s performance indicates domestic economic outlook. These price signals direct resources more efficiently than centralized planning could achieve.

The Role of Financial Markets in UK Economic Growth

Financial markets directly boost UK economic development through several channels. The London Stock Exchange has enabled over £43 billion in equity capital raising for UK businesses in the past five years, funding expansion, research, and job creation.

Companies accessing equity markets grow employment 11% faster than comparable private firms following their listing.

UK corporate bond markets facilitate approximately £80 billion in annual issuance, providing financing for capital-intensive industries including energy, telecommunications, and manufacturing.

This debt funding extends investment horizons beyond typical bank lending timeframes, enabling longer-term strategic projects.

The depth of UK financial markets supports the country’s competitiveness, with financial services contributing 10% to GDP and generating a £57 billion trade surplus.

Research shows that a 10% increase in stock market capitalization relative to GDP correlates with a 0.23% increase in UK productivity growth.

Financial Market Regulation and Stability

Financial markets operate within a comprehensive regulatory framework:

• The Financial Conduct Authority oversees securities markets using a principles-based approach addressing market abuse, disclosure requirements, and conduct standards.
• The Prudential Regulation Authority focuses on financial soundness of market participants, imposing capital requirements that reduce systemic risk.
• The UK’s post-Brexit regulatory architecture maintains equivalence with EU standards while introducing modifications to enhance competitiveness, including the Edinburgh Reforms aimed at streamlining listing requirements.
• Market transparency regulations like MiFID II have enhanced reporting requirements, narrowing bid-ask spreads on UK equities by approximately 14% and benefiting investors through lower trading costs.

These regulations evolved from lessons during the 2008 financial crisis, when market failures demonstrated the connection between financial stability and broader economic health.

The Financial Policy Committee now conducts regular stress tests to identify vulnerabilities before they threaten system-wide stability.

Going grey in your twenties could be a sign of serious underlying health problem

If you've noticed a few grey hairs peeking through in your twenties, you're not alone.

Despite greys being assosciated with later life, here has been a sharp rise in Gen Z and Millenials noticing slithers of silver running through their locks, and experts have examined why. Certain factors like stress and genetics are usually the leading cause of greying, but there's another reason they may appear sooner - mineral deficiencies. But the good news is, you may be able to reverse it, according to experts.

According to the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, grey hairs usually begin in the mid-30s for white people, late 30s for those with Asian heritage, and mid-40s for Afro-Caribbean people. However, many people are taking to social media to share their greys, with some still in their teens.

Experts believe premature greying could be a sign of deeper health issues. Catarina Orr-Evans, a health coach based in Columbus, Ohio, took to TikTok to explain how mineral imbalances might contribute to premature greying in young people.

The video has racked up nearly 8 million views, and she's encouraged young people to explore the potential connection between mineral depletion, stress and hair health.

Sudden stress can accelerate this quickly by "borrowing" minerals from the hair, experts say.While hair dyes mask grey, restoring mineral balance could reverse it naturally.

Cara Shaw, nutritionist at BlueIron, spoke to The Mirror about Gen Z and Millenials going grey earlier and further backed up the claims that mineral deficiencies can result in premature greys. She said: "Greying is a natural part of the ageing process whereas premature greying occurs at unusually young ages." She said some research has found a correlation between low iron levels and premature greying.

But the expert said it's not just a lack of iron that could be to blame. She added: "It's important to note that many of these studies have found other vitamins and mineral levels to be low too including B12 and vitamin D." There was a study done on an 11-year-old who started to go grey, and after five months of iron supplementation, it managed to reversed the case of premature greying.

Cara said that anyone who has concerns over low mineral levels should contact their GP to get tested for low iron. She added: "If there is a deficiency, you can correct with a supplement like BlueIron - a liquid iron that is both gentle on the gut and efficiently absorbed."

This was further echoed by Keri Platt, nutrition and wellness coach and founder of KPH Coaching who told The Mirror: "While it can adversely impact your self-esteem and body image, premature greying isn't a serious health problem in its own right. But nevertheless it can reflect underlying health or lifestyle factors. Your hair colour depends on melanin, which is produced by melanocytes in the hair follicles. Greying affects us all over time, but the process can be accelerated by stress and nutritional deficiencies."

She explained how chronic stress can "accelerate" the greying process as it depletes melanocyte stem cells, while vitamin B12, copper, iron, or zinc deficiencies disrupt melanin production. For example, low B12 levels, often linked to anaemia, and insufficient copper, essential for melanin-synthesizing enzymes, can trigger greying.

The expert said if you can reduce stress through mindfulness or exercise, and maintain a "nutrient-rich diet with plenty of leafy greens, nuts, seeds, and lean proteins" it can be key to slowing the process.

"Supplements may also help, under professional guidance. While genetics play a role too, addressing stress and diet can support healthier hair and overall wellbeing," she concluded.

Too much sleep is more dangerous than not enough

Sleeping for too long is worse for your health than a lack of sleep, a new study has suggested.

Researchers found people who regularly sleep for fewer than seven hours per night or more than nine hours per night were increasing their risk of death.

The study revealed that those sleeping for fewer than seven hours were 14 per cent more likely to die from any cause than those getting the optimal seven to eight hours of shut-eye.

But it also showed the increased risk of death rose to 34 per cent among people who were regularly sleeping for nine hours or more per night.

Experts from the Semmelweis University in Budapest, Hungary, analysed data from more than 2.1 million participants across 79 separate international studies.

Men were at greater risk of death than women from sleeping too little, while women faced a greater risk than men from sleeping for too long each night, the research said.

The study found men who slept for less than seven hours a night had a 16 per cent higher risk of death, and those who slept for eight hours or more had a 36 per cent increased risk.

Meanwhile, women with short sleep durations had a 14 per cent higher risk, and those sleeping for longer faced a 44 per cent increased risk.

The researchers said the differences were likely due to hormonal, behavioural or cardiovascular differences between men and women.

‘A sleep epidemic’

Dr. György Purebl, director of Semmelweis University’s Institute of Behavioural Sciences and co-author of the study said: “As a society, we are experiencing a sleep epidemic. Even though awareness has grown, our behaviour hasn’t changed much in the last decade.

“The constant exposure to blue light, pressure to remain available around the clock, and disruption of our natural biological rhythms continue to take a toll on our health.”

The authors of the study warned that sleep deprivation is a growing global health concern, with millions of people regularly sleeping too little because of work demands, exposure to digital screens and stress.

Shift workers and those with irregular schedules are particularly affected, it said.

Chronic sleep loss is not only linked to premature death but also a range of health issues including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and a worsening immune system.

Sleep and strokes

In a second study the Hungarian researchers looked at the impact of sleep duration on the risk of stroke and subsequent death.

They found that people sleeping for five to six hours per night had a 29 per cent higher risk of stroke than those sleeping for seven to eight hours and were 12 per cent more likely to die because of the stroke.

Those sleeping more than eight hours had a 46 per cent higher risk of stroke and were 45 per cent more likely to die from it.

Dr. Balázs Győrffy, head of the Department of Bioinformatics at Semmelweis University, and senior author of both studies, said: “Stroke remains one of the leading causes of death and long-term disability worldwide.

“Identifying modifiable risk factors like sleep can offer powerful public health benefits. Our findings make it clear that sleep duration should be considered in stroke prevention strategies to reduce the burden on healthcare systems and improve population health.”

Osteoporosis: Five risk factors for the silent bone disease

A simple three-minute online assessment has been launched to help people identify their risk of osteoporosis.

The Royal Osteoporosis Society’s (ROS) Great British Bone Check campaign, backed by the Queen, hopes to help people get diagnosed and treated quicker.

The initiative follows a YouGov survey, conducted for the ROS, of 2,082 adults. The results found that 79 per cent said they had never checked their bone health and 49 per cent were unaware that women face a higher risk of fractures after menopause.

In light of this, Julia Thomson, nurse manager at ROS, has highlighted five silent risk factors of osteoporosis:

What is osteoporosis?

“Osteoporosis is a condition which makes bones more fragile and more likely to break,” explains Thomson.

The NHS says it develops slowly over several years and is often only diagnosed when a fall or sudden impact causes a bone to break.

Approximately 3.5 million people in the UK are estimated to have osteoporosis, according to the Royal Osteoporosis Society.

“A lot of people believe that osteoporosis only affects women, but we know that men are also affected,” adds Thomson. “One in two women and 20 per cent of men over 50 will break a bone as a result of osteoporosis.”

The nurse manager also highlights that the idea that osteoporosis always causes pain is another common misconception.

“It only hurts if you break something,” clarifies Thomson. “The actual fragility, having fragile bones, doesn’t hurt or cause any symptoms at all. It’s the broken bones that cause all the symptoms, problems and pain that we associate with the condition.”

What are the main risk factors of osteoporosis?

1. Family history

“The Great British Bone Check is all about identifying the risk factors early to prevent fractures, and these risk factors include things like family history, so if you’ve got osteoporosis in the family,” says Thomson.

For example, research suggests that if one of your parents broke their hip, you are more likely to break a bone yourself, according to the Royal Osteoporosis Society.

“It’s not as obvious as some of the other conditions where there is a really strong genetic link, but there seems to be family traits,” says Thomson.

2. Age

We reach our peak bone health at the age of 30 and it begins to naturally decline as we get older, according to the Royal Osteoporosis Society.

“We’re all building our bones during childhood and adolescence and there’s two types of cells in the bone, the cells which break bone down, and the cells which build up bone,” explains Thomson. “During our childhood and adolescence, the cells which build up bone are working more quickly than the cells which break it down to build our skeleton.

“Then when we get into our 30s we plateau as both types of cells work at the same rate and in our 40s, the cells which break down the bone start to take over as the quick workers. So, we’re all starting to lose bone quite naturally as a consequence of ageing.”

However, Thomson stresses that osteoporosis is not just a “disease of the elderly”.

“It can affect people around menopause and, more unusually, it can also affect people a lot younger than that,” says Thomson. “But, that is usually due to something else going on which has affected their risk of osteoporosis.”

3. Gender

“Osteoporosis is more common in women than men partly because women tend to build less strong bones than men to start with,” explains Thomson. “Also, during around the time of the menopause we start to lose the protective effects of oestrogen.

“Oestrogen is a hormone which we produce pre-menopausally that protects our bones, and when we lose that protection our bone loss accelerates, which increases the risk of osteoporosis .”

4. Medications

Certain medication like steroids can have negative impact on our bones.

“Some steroids play a really important part of the management of lots of conditions like arthritis and some inflammatory bowel conditions but unfortunately they’re not good for bones. This is because steroids can impact those bone building cells and dampen their actions,” explains Thomson.

“So, it’s important that when these drugs are prescribed that whoever’s prescribing them is also thinking about that person’s bone health at the same time.”

5. Lifestyle factors

“Drinking too much alcohol and smoking is damaging for many health reasons, including the impact it can have on our bones,” says Thomson.

“Keeping your body weight within a healthy range for your age and your height is also very important.

“Limiting dietary intake to the extent that your body weight is dangerously low, for example, can have a huge impact on bone health because you won’t be getting the nutrition your bones need and often periods will stop, which is a sign that you’re not producing oestrogen, which is not good for your bones.

“So, keeping active, eating a well-balanced, calcium-rich diet, not smoking and keeping alcohol consumption within the guidance we get from the government, is all going to help your bones.”

How is osteoporosis officially diagnosed?

“It will start with a conversation with your GP talking about the risk factors and then they may suggest a bone density scan which will show how your bone strength compares to an average,” explains Thomson.

“Then if your bone density is within the range which is classified as osteoporosis, your GP may consider prescribing a drug treatment to help reduce the risk of fractures.”

High cholesterol can be shown by 'seven strange' signs in your legs

Elevated cholesterol levels, also known as hypercholesterolemia, can be a silent but potentially deadly condition involving an excessive amount of cholesterol—a type of fatty substance—in the blood. While initially appearing harmless, if left unchecked, elevated cholesterol can greatly increase the risk of serious health issues like heart attacks and strokes over time.

Cholesterol accumulation can lead to clogged arteries that impede proper blood circulation and significantly raise the risk of cardiovascular diseases, which account for nearly 18 million deaths globally each year. In the UK, around one in four deaths is due to cardiovascular disease.

One major concern with high cholesterol is its lack of symptoms, which often results in many people being unaware of their condition until experiencing a medical emergency or when tested during a general practitioner appointment. The NHS has highlighted this invisible threat, stating: "High cholesterol does not usually cause symptoms. You can only find out if you have it from a blood test."

Nonetheless, certain warning signs exist that could signal high cholesterol. Notably, the development of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) may serve as a critical warning.

PAD is a common condition where fatty deposits block arteries, reducing blood flow to the leg muscles—something the NHS notes certainly "restricts" muscle circulation.

Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD) might not always show symptoms, but when it does, the legs can exhibit certain signs. The NHS has highlighted seven key indicators to watch for, such as hair loss on your legs and foot ulcers.

Key Limb Indicators of High Cholesterol You Shouldn't Ignore

1. Leg pain during physical activity

Leg pain during physical activity, known as claudication, can indicate high cholesterol. This occurs when narrowed or blocked arteries limit blood flow to the leg muscles. As a result, the muscles do not receive enough oxygen and nutrients to function properly, leading to pain and discomfort.

2. Heaviness or fatigue in legs

One way your limbs may warn you about high cholesterol is through the sensation of heaviness or fatigue in the legs. This feeling is often described as tiredness, weakness, or a heavy burden weighing down the legs. This sensation can make it challenging to carry out daily activities and worsen with prolonged standing or walking.

3. Coldness or numbness in limbs

Experiencing cold feet is common in chilly weather, as our bodies naturally react to the cold by constricting blood vessels. However, if you find yourself with cold feet for no apparent reason, it might be a sign that your cholesterol levels are at play.It is cr ucial to notice this symptom and consider getting your blood tested.

4. Frequent leg cramps

Frequent leg cramps can be a bothersome and painful experience, and they may indicate high cholesterol levels. While leg cramps are commonly associated with muscle fatigue or dehydration, they can also be linked to poor circulation caused by elevated cholesterol. It is essential to pay attention to recurring leg cramps and consider them as potential warning signs of high cholesterol. Seeking medical advice and checking cholesterol levels can help identify any underlying issues.

5. Weakness or difficulty in walking

Sometimes weakness or difficulty walking can be a warning sign of high cholesterol levels. When cholesterol builds up in the arteries, it restricts blood flow and oxygen supply to the muscles, leading to weakness and difficulty walking.

6. Change in skin color

While most people associate high cholesterol with its impact on heart health, it can also manifest in visible changes on the skin. High cholesterol levels can lead to the formation of small, yellowish deposits known as xanthomas, which may appear under the skin. These deposits can occur in various areas of the body, including the eyelids, palms, soles of the feet, and tendons. When these xanthomas develop, they can cause the skin to take on a distinctly yellowish hue or a pale appearance.

7. Delayed Wound Healing

If you observe a slow healing process of a wound on your limbs, it indicates inadequate blood circulation, potentially caused by elevated cholesterol levels. While other factors like diabetes could also be responsible, a blood test can accurately determine the underlying condition.

"The symptoms of PAD often develop slowly, over time," the NHS cautions. "If your symptoms develop quickly, or get suddenly worse, it could be a sign of a serious problem requiring immediate treatment."

One of the most common symptoms is an aching pain in the legs that occurs during walking. This pain typically eases after resting for a few minutes, according to the NHS. The discomfort can range from mild to severe and usually subsides once you rest your legs.

"Both legs are often affected at the same time, although the pain may be worse in one leg." Additional symptoms of PAD include shiny skin on the legs and erectile dysfunction. Having PAD also increases the risk of developing coronary heart disease, which is the leading cause of death from cardiovascular diseases in the UK.

For those worried about cholesterol levels, it's advisable to speak with a healthcare professional. To help manage cholesterol, the NHS suggests.

How do genes shape our brains? Study of 70,000 people reveals new links to ADHD and Parkinson’s

The human brain is a marvel of complexity. It contains specialised and interconnected structures controlling our thoughts, personality and behaviour.

The size and shape of our brains also play a crucial role in cognitive functions and mental health. For example, a slightly smaller hippocampus, the structure responsible for regulation of memory and emotion, is commonly seen in depression. In dementia, atrophy of the hippocampus is correlated with memory loss and cognitive decline.

Despite these insights, we have only scratched the surface of understanding the brain and its connection to mental health.

In collaboration with scientists around the world, we have conducted the world’s largest genetic study of the volume of regional structures of the brain. This study is now published in Nature Genetics.

We discovered hundreds of genetic variants that influence the size of structures such as the amygdala (the “processing centre” for emotions), the hippocampus and the thalamus (involved in movement and sensory signals).

We uncovered their potential overlap with genes known to influence the risk of certain developmental, psychiatric and neurological disorders.

More than 70,000 brains

To understand how the brain connects to mental health, scientists like ourselves engage in large-scale scientific studies that span the globe.

These studies, which involve thousands of volunteers, are the bedrock of modern biomedical research. They help us discover genes associated with brain size and mental health conditions. In turn, this can improve diagnostic precision and even pave the way for personalised medicine, which uses a person’s genetic test results to tailor treatments.

We screened the DNA and closely examined magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans from more than 70,000 people across 19 countries. We wanted to find out if there are specific genetic variants influencing differences in brain size between individuals.

What we found was stunning. Some of these genes seem to act early in life, and many genes also increase the risk for conditions like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Parkinson’s disease.

What did we find out?

Brain-related disorders are common, with an estimated 40% of Australians experiencing a mental health disorder in their lifetime.

Our genetic findings reveal that larger regional brain volumes (the size of specific parts of the brain) are associated with a higher risk of Parkinson’s disease. In comparison, smaller regional brain volumes are statistically linked with a higher risk of ADHD.

These insights suggest that genetic influences on brain size are fundamental to understanding the origins of mental health disorders. And understanding these genetic links is crucial. It shows how our genes can influence brain development and the risk of mental health conditions.

By investigating shared genetic causes, we could one day develop treatments that address multiple conditions simultaneously, providing more effective support for individuals with various conditions. This is especially important in mental health, where it is common for someone to experience more than one disorder at the same time.

Our study also revealed that genetic effects on brain structure are consistent across people from both European and non-European ancestry. This suggests that certain genetic factors have stuck around throughout human evolution.

Bridging the gaps

Our research also lays the groundwork for using genetic data to develop statistical models that predict disease risk based on a person’s genetic profile.

These advancements could lead to population screening, identifying those at higher risk for specific mental health disorders. Early intervention could then help prevent or delay the onset of these conditions.

In the future, our goal is to bridge the gaps between genetics, neuroscience, and medicine. This integration will help scientists answer critical questions about how genetic influences on brain structure affect behaviour and disease outcomes.

Understanding the genetics of brain structure and mental health susceptibility can help us better prevent, diagnose and treat these conditions.

The concept of the “human brain” first appeared in ancient Greece around 335 BCE. The philosopher Aristotle described it as a radiator that prevented the heart from overheating. While we now know Aristotle was wrong, the complexities of the brain and its links to mental health remain largely mysterious even today.

As we continue to unlock the genetic secrets of the brain, we move closer to unravelling these mysteries. This type of research has the potential to transform our understanding and treatment of mental health.