The Y chromosome degrades over time and men's health is paying for it

The Y chromosome can disappear over time in human males, which may introduce a number of health problems. While the exact trigger for such degeneration is unknown, environmental factors can play a significant role. New research on the topic hints that the human Y chromosome is evolutionarily unstable and could even become extinct in the future.

Chromosomal complications

Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including a pair of sex chromosomes that can be either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. Having two X chromosomes usually designates a human as biologically female, while having one X chromosome and one Y chromosome designates a human as male, though this is separate from a person's gender identity.

The Y chromosome is only about one-third the size of the X and contains far fewer genes. Now, scientists have found that this smaller chromosome can actually degrade over time. "The idea is that as men grow older, they lose this chromosome from many of their cells, which drives age-related disease," said New Scientist.

Specifically, the loss of the Y chromosome (LOY) has "important effects in shaping the activity of the immune system," and can open the door wider for several diseases, including "cancer, neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disease and acute infection," said a January 2025 study published in the journal Nature Reviews Genetics. "If you're a male, you do not want to lose your Y chromosome, it's definitely going to shorten your life," Kenneth Walsh, a professor at the University of Virginia, said to New Scientist.

When it comes to cancer, "tumors without the Y chromosome grew twice as fast as those with it," said New Scientist. This is largely because the "loss of the Y chromosome causes tumor cells to make proteins that exhaust T cells, a kind of immune cell that ordinarily recognizes and attacks cancers." In addition, research has shown that the risk of Alzheimer's disease greatly increases with LOY. Experts speculate that the "Y chromosome-deficient immune cells infiltrate the brain and may lead to increased inflammation or may be less able to regulate the inflammatory response," a symptom which is "characteristic of Alzheimer's disease," the study said.

Micro mistakes

Y chromosome loss is largely "due to cell division mistakes," said News Medical. This is "enormously common" and "not like some freakish accident," Lars Forsberg, a senior lecturer and associate professor at Uppsala University in Sweden, said to New Scientist. It likely happens to all males, but age increases the level of loss significantly. Additionally, there is "no data to suggest that men with loss of Y would feel it."

Other contributing factors include smoking and exposure to environmental toxins like air pollution, glyphosate herbicides and arsenic-contaminated water. Quitting smoking could reduce the risk, and "future research may identify specific mutations or factors that trigger LOY," said News Medical.

LOY is "increasingly viewed as a marker of genome instability and a biological indicator of environmental stress," said News Medical. It could also be a major reason why females tend to have longer lifespans. "Females seem to be the stronger sex from a genetic point of view, with a more stable and less disease-prone genome," said the study. While the Y chromosome degrades on the individual level, there is evidence that the chromosome may be going extinct on an evolutionary scale as well.

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Abstract

Loss of Y chromosome (LOY) is the most commonly occurring post-zygotic (somatic) mutation in male individuals. The past decade of research suggests that LOY has important effects in shaping the activity of the immune system, and multiple studies have shown the effects of LOY on a range of diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disease and acute infection. Epidemiological findings have been corroborated by functional analyses providing insights into the mechanisms by which LOY modulates the immune system; in particular, a causal role for LOY in cardiac fibrosis, bladder cancer and Alzheimer disease has been indicated. These insights show that LOY is a highly dynamic mutation (such that LOY clones expand and contract with time) and has pleiotropic, cell-type-specific effects. Here, we review the status of the field and highlight the potential of LOY as a biomarker and target of new therapeutics that aim to counteract its negative effects on the immune system.

Cortisol side effects explained: How chronic stress 'changes the way you look'

Have you looked in the mirror recently and not recognised the person looking back? Cortisol, the hormone designed to control inflammation in our bodies, could be to blame. At normal levels, of course, it's absolutely essential. Holistic nutritionist and author Beatriz Larrea explains that the anti-inflammatory hormone, which initially rises in the morning when we wake up, is "our friend". "It helps us get out of bed with energy and get our day started efficiently," she says. The problem arises, though, when levels skyrocket due to chronic stress or other factors, spiking our cortisol levels with it. "Our bodies aren't built for that," she notes, "and it starts a domino effect of health problems."

High cortisol: What it does to your face and body

What are those health dominoes that may come tumbling down? "We see damage to the hippocampus [located in the brain's temporal lobe], weight gain - especially around the belly area - and changes in blood sugar and blood pressure," says Larrea. "We may experience premature ageing; the shortening of telomeres, hyperpigmentation, grey hairs, and loss of muscle mass. Crucially, our bodies have now become resistant to our cortisol's anti-inflammatory effects."

Sounds like a lot, doesn't it? With the help of more experts, we'll tell you what you need to know about elevated cortisol; how a 'Moon face' might be a reflection of high cortisol, what other symptoms you might be noticing and what, if anything, you can do about it.

Are you in 'chronic stress mode'?

"High cortisol doesn't just wear you out internally; it also changes how you look," says Fran Zamorano, a dietitian who specialises in hormone-balancing nutrition for women.

According to the nutritionist, signs that your cortisol level is high may include:

• A more rounded, or "Moon" face - this also may be a sign of Cushing's syndrome or hypothyroidism
• An increase in abdominal fat and difficulty toning your body
• Bloating
• Hair loss
• Dull skin and premature wrinkles
• Dark circles and bags under the eyes

According to Zamorano, if you identify with at least three of the effects on the list, your body might be stuck in "chronic stress mode." Luckily, he says that all is not lost: "You're not broken, you're dysregulated."

What can you do about high cortisol?

Regaining balance in your mental health, diet and other habits - like screen time - is key, and you have to embrace the fact that stress will always exist. It's more about how you decide to handle it. "You'll never be able to avoid stress - welcome to the 21st century - but you can learn to live with it," Larrea concludes.

There are three easy habits that you can start today:

• Eat a breakfast rich in protein and healthy fats, without sugar or refined flours.
• Get outsideand get some sunlight in the morning, even if it's just for 10 minutes.
• Eat dinner early, and at least an hour before bed. Put down your mobile or tablet - no screens allowed.

When planning your meals and snacks, remember that your body "doesn't need less food. It needs less cortisol". "If you want to lose fat, boost your energy levels, and look - and feel - like yourself again, start by regulating your hormones," says Zamorano.

About the experts:

Fran Zamorano is a Spain-based dietitian and nutritionist who has developed his own programme to help women improve their hormone health with the support of a team of nutritionists and psychonutritionists.

Beatriz Larrea is a holistic nutritionist and author of the Spanish-language book Your Body on Fire: Keys to Fighting Inflammation and Reversing Ageing (Tu cuerpo en llamas: Todas las claves para combatir la inflamación y revertir el envejecimiento)

This Cream Has Been in Your Cabinet for Years – But Does It Actually Work?

 

Since it first hit the market in 1911, it has achieved legendary status in skincare.

The cream is based on a discovery called Eucerit, an emulsion that combines oil and water.

This unique formula quickly gained popularity and helped the company expand globally.

Today, the creme is available in over 200 countries and accounts for nearly half of the brand’s exports.

OCU put the classic cream to the test

The Spanish consumer organization OCU tested the Nivea Cream with help from dermatological experts.

The goal was to determine whether its moisturizing power lives up to its reputation.

Volunteers applied the cream to one forearm twice a day for two weeks. Afterwards, hydration levels were measured and compared to the untreated arm.

This method allowed researchers to isolate the cream’s actual impact on the skin. The outcome was clear, but interpretations varied among participants.

Effective, but not flawless

According to OCU’s conclusion, Nivea’s moisturizing ability is “good”.

Test subjects praised its nostalgic and recognizable scent – a clear childhood throwback.

There was widespread agreement that the treated skin felt noticeably more hydrated. However, not everyone was thrilled: some complained about a greasy after-feel.

The texture was also criticized for being thick and hard to spread evenly. Still, the overall impression remained positive – especially considering the product’s low cost.

So, does Nivea cream work? Yes – but it’s not ideal for everyone. Those with oily skin types may want to consider a lighter alternative.

Too much sleep is more dangerous than not enough

Sleeping for too long is worse for your health than a lack of sleep, a new study has suggested.

Researchers found people who regularly sleep for fewer than seven hours per night or more than nine hours per night were increasing their risk of death.

The study revealed that those sleeping for fewer than seven hours were 14 per cent more likely to die from any cause than those getting the optimal seven to eight hours of shut-eye.

But it also showed the increased risk of death rose to 34 per cent among people who were regularly sleeping for nine hours or more per night.

Experts from the Semmelweis University in Budapest, Hungary, analysed data from more than 2.1 million participants across 79 separate international studies.

Men were at greater risk of death than women from sleeping too little, while women faced a greater risk than men from sleeping for too long each night, the research said.

The study found men who slept for less than seven hours a night had a 16 per cent higher risk of death, and those who slept for eight hours or more had a 36 per cent increased risk.

Meanwhile, women with short sleep durations had a 14 per cent higher risk, and those sleeping for longer faced a 44 per cent increased risk.

The researchers said the differences were likely due to hormonal, behavioural or cardiovascular differences between men and women.

‘A sleep epidemic’

Dr. György Purebl, director of Semmelweis University’s Institute of Behavioural Sciences and co-author of the study said: “As a society, we are experiencing a sleep epidemic. Even though awareness has grown, our behaviour hasn’t changed much in the last decade.

“The constant exposure to blue light, pressure to remain available around the clock, and disruption of our natural biological rhythms continue to take a toll on our health.”

The authors of the study warned that sleep deprivation is a growing global health concern, with millions of people regularly sleeping too little because of work demands, exposure to digital screens and stress.

Shift workers and those with irregular schedules are particularly affected, it said.

Chronic sleep loss is not only linked to premature death but also a range of health issues including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and a worsening immune system.

Sleep and strokes

In a second study the Hungarian researchers looked at the impact of sleep duration on the risk of stroke and subsequent death.

They found that people sleeping for five to six hours per night had a 29 per cent higher risk of stroke than those sleeping for seven to eight hours and were 12 per cent more likely to die because of the stroke.

Those sleeping more than eight hours had a 46 per cent higher risk of stroke and were 45 per cent more likely to die from it.

Dr. Balázs Győrffy, head of the Department of Bioinformatics at Semmelweis University, and senior author of both studies, said: “Stroke remains one of the leading causes of death and long-term disability worldwide.

“Identifying modifiable risk factors like sleep can offer powerful public health benefits. Our findings make it clear that sleep duration should be considered in stroke prevention strategies to reduce the burden on healthcare systems and improve population health.”

Walking too far with arthritis? Here’s how to know when to stop

 

Walking too far with arthritis? Here’s how to know when to stop

If your knees or hips feel stiff and sore after a long walk, you might wonder whether you're making your osteoarthritis worse. But movement isn’t the enemy—on the contrary, it might be exactly what your joints need. Here's what experts recommend before lacing up your shoes again.

Walking is generally beneficial

Even with osteoarthritis, walking is one of the most joint-friendly forms of exercise—if done mindfully and at your own pace.

The term “wear-and-tear arthritis” is misleading

Osteoarthritis isn’t just about joints being "worn out"—it involves complex changes in cartilage and joint tissue, not simply overuse.

Don’t lose trust in your body

People with osteoarthritis often fear movement, but staying active can prevent stiffness and help maintain joint function.

Start slow and build gradually

If you've been inactive for a while, long walks can be too much. Begin with short walks and slowly increase the distance as strength and balance improve.

Strength training helps

Building muscle around the knees and hips improves stability, reduces pressure on joints, and makes walking less painful.

Physical therapy is a smart first step

A physiotherapist can tailor exercises to your needs, helping you move safely while building up your capacity for longer walks.

Know your pain threshold

Mild pain during or after walking is normal—but it shouldn’t exceed 5 out of 10 on a pain scale, and it should go away by the next day.

Morning soreness is a warning sign

If your joints feel worse the morning after a walk, it’s a sign you may have gone too far. Scale back and find a more comfortable range.

Walk often, not far

Frequent short walks tend to be more effective and manageable than one long, exhausting session.

Your mindset matters

Believing that you can move safely with osteoarthritis can make a real difference. A positive attitude helps reduce pain and encourages consistency.

The deadly and often overlooked risk of birth control

 

For millions of women, combined hormonal contraceptives are a part of their daily life – providing a convenient and effective option for preventing pregnancy and managing their menstrual cycle.

But new findings are sounding the alarm on a serious, and often overlooked, risk: stroke.

According to recent findings presented at the European Stroke Organisation Conference, combined oral hormonal contraceptives (which contains both oestrogen and progestogen) may significantly increase the chance of women experiencing a cryptogenic stroke. This is a sudden and serious type of stroke that occurs with no obvious cause.

Surprisingly, in younger adults – particularly women – cryptogenic strokes make up approximately 40% of all strokes. This suggests there may be sex-specific factors which contribute to this risk – such as hormonal contraception use. These recently-presented findings lend themselves to this theory.

At this year’s conference, researchers presented findings from the Secreto study. This is an international investigation that has been conducted into the causes of unexplained strokes in young people aged 18 to 49. The study enrolled 608 patients with cryptogenic ischaemic stroke from 13 different European countries.

One of their most striking discoveries was that women who used combined oral contraceptives were three times more likely to experience a cryptogenic stroke compared to non-users. These results stood, even after researchers adjusted for other factors which may have contributed to stroke risk (such as obesity and history of migraines).

It’s well-documented that hormonal contraceptives, which contain both oestrogen and progestin, come with a small, increased risk of experiencing serious health events, including stroke – particularly ischaemic stroke, which occurs when blood flow to part of the brain is blocked.

But a study published earlier this year, which tracked over two million women, found that combined hormonal contraceptives – including the pill, intrauterine devices (IUD), patches and vaginal rings, which all contain both synthetic oestrogen and progestogen – were linked to higher risks of both stroke and heart attack. The vaginal ring increased stroke risk by 2.4 times and 3.8 times for heart attack. The contraceptive patch was found to increase stroke risk by nearly 3.5 times.

Interestingly, they also looked at a progestin-only contraceptive (the IUD) and found there was no increased risk for either heart attacks or strokes.

Both of these recent findings suggest oestrogen may be the main driver of stroke risk. While absolute risk is still low – meaning fewer than 40 in every 100,000 women using a combined hormonal contraceptive will experience a stroke – the population-level impact is significant considering the number of women worldwide who use a combined hormonal contraceptive.

Oestrogen and stroke risk

Combined hormonal contraceptives contain synthetic versions of the sex hormones oestrogen (usually ethinylestradiol) and a progestin (the synthetic version of progestogen).

Natural oestrogen in the body plays a role in promoting blood clotting, which is important for helping wounds heal and preventing excessive bleeding.

But the synthetic oestrogen in contraceptives is more potent and delivered in higher, steady doses. It stimulates the liver to produce extra clotting proteins and reduces natural anticoagulants, tipping the balance toward easier clot formation. This effect, while helpful in stopping bleeding, can raise the risk of abnormal blood clots that can lead to conditions such as stroke. This risk may be even greater for people who smoke, experience migraines or have a genetic tendency to clot.

If a clot forms in an artery that supplies the brain or breaks off and travels through the bloodstream to the brain, this can block blood flow – causing what’s known as an ischaemic stroke. This is the most common type of stroke. Clots can also form in deep veins (such as those in the legs or around your organs).


In addition to clotting, oestrogen may also slightly raise blood pressure and affect how blood vessels behave over time, which can further increase stroke risk.

The effects of oestrogen on clotting may partly explain why the recent conference findings showed a link between combined contraceptive use and cryptogenic stroke risk. Cryptogenic stroke has no obvious cause, but is increasingly being linked to subtle, hidden risk factors – such as hormone-driven clotting.

Understanding risk

These numbers can sound alarming at first, but it’s important to keep them in perspective. The absolute risk – meaning the actual number of people affected – is still low.

For instance, researchers estimate that there may be one additional stroke per year for every 4,700 women using the combined pill.

That sounds rare, and for most users, it is. But when you consider that millions of women use these contraceptives globally, even a small increase in risk can translate into a significant number of strokes at the population level. Which is relative to what is seen with the high number of cryptogenic strokes in young women.

Despite the risks associated with combined hormonal contraceptives, many women continue to use them – either because they aren’t fully informed of the risks or because the alternatives are either less effective, less accessible or come with their own burdens.

Part of the reason this trade-off has become so normalised is the persistent under-funding and under-prioritisation of women’s health research. Historically, medical research has focused disproportionately on men – with women either excluded from studies or treated as an afterthought.

This has led to a limited understanding of how hormonal contraceptives affect female physiology beyond fertility control. As a result, the side-effects remain poorly understood, under-communicated and under-addressed.

Women have a right to make informed decisions about their health and body. This starts with having access to accurate information about the real risks and benefits of every contraceptive option. It means understanding, for example, that while combined hormonal contraceptives do carry a small risk of blood clots and stroke, pregnancy and the weeks following childbirth come with an even higher risk of those same complications. This context is vital for making truly informed choices.

No method of contraception is perfect. But when women are given the full picture, they can choose the method that best suits them.

We also need more research that reflects the diversity and complexity of women’s bodies, not just to improve safety, but to expand options and empower decisions.

Oncologist says men should 'never ignore' six health 'niggles'

 

An oncologist is urging men not to ignore ‘niggly’ health concerns, as taking action could save their lives. The odd ache and pain isn’t usually something to worry about, but with data showing how often men contact their GP, oncologists are worried life-altering conditions, like cancer, could be getting found too late.

According to a recent ONS Health Insight Survey, just 33.5% of men had attempted to make contact with their GP practice for themselves or someone else in their household in the last 28 days. This is compared to 45.8% of women.

Dr Jiri Kubes, radiation oncologist at the Proton Therapy Center, said: “We know men are less likely to book in to see their GP, and these latest figures show this is a continuing trend."

Dr Kubes has listed six 'niggly' symptoms men should never ignore.

Back pain

Often dismissed as part of getting old, back pain is one of those niggles that can be ignored.

Dr Kubes said: “Back pain is usually musculoskeletal but persistent or deep pain in the lower back or hips requires attention.

“If it’s getting worse or doesn’t improve at home after a few weeks, it’s time to call your GP.”

Persistent fatigue

Another symptom many may link to aging, but feeling constantly fatigued can be linked to many serious illnesses.

“Ongoing fatigue, even after proper rest, could be a subtle sign of many underlying conditions, including cancer, especially if it’s accompanying other symptoms,” Dr Kubes said.

Unintentional weight loss

If you have suddenly started to lose weight and haven’t changed your diet or exercise habits, it’s time to call your GP.

Dr Kubes said: “Sudden weight loss with no obvious reason should always be discussed with your doctor.

“It could be down to a number of different reasons, for example stress, but it could also be linked to serious illnesses such as cancer.”

Lumps and bumps

Any changes to your body that are not normal for you should be discussed with a GP as soon as possible.

Dr Kubes said: “Any unusual swelling, lumps or bumps anywhere on the body should not be ignored.

“There could be a very innocent explanation, or it could be something serious that needs attention.”

Sore throat

It could be just a cold, but if a painful throat is lingering, it could be something else.

“Having a sore throat for longer than three weeks is worthy of a call to your GP,” Dr Kubes said.

“If it’s accompanied by hoarseness or difficulty swallowing then it could be an early sign of throat cancer.”

Urinary changes

Changes to toilet habits can indicate something is wrong.

“Changes in urinary flow - whether it’s a weak stream, difficulty starting, or the sensation of incomplete emptying - are symptoms we routinely investigate for urological cancers,” Dr Kubes said.